excerpt from the Cronica Mexicayotl by Hernando Alvarado Tezozomoc written in 1609

I.

Here it is told, it is recounted

How the ancients who were called, who were named,

Teochichimeca, Azteca, Mexitin, Chicomoztoca, came, arrived,

When they came to seek,

When they came to gain possession of their land here,

In the great city of Mexico Tenochtitlan. . . .

In the middle of the water where the cactus stands,

Where the eagle raises itself up,

Where the eagle screeches,

Where the eagle spreads his wings,

Where the eagle feeds,

Where the serpent is torn apart,

Where the fish fly,

Where the blue waters and the yellow waters join,

Where the water blazes up,

Where feathers came to be known,

Among the rushes, among the reeds where the battle is joined,

Where the peoples from the four directions are awaited,

There they arrived, there they settled…

They called themselves Teochichimeca, Azteca, Mexitin.

They brought along the image of their god,

The idol that they worshipped.

The Aztecs heard him speak and they answered him;

They did not see how it was he spoke to them…

II.

And after the Azteca, Mexitin sailed here from Aztlan,

They arrived in Culhuacan….

They went everywhere in Culhuacan,

In far-off Culhuacan, in Tona Ichuacan or Tonallan.

All of them journey far—

The people of Michoacan, kin of the Mexicans,

And the people of Malinalco—for all of them came.

And when the Aztecs abandoned the people of Michoacan,

The men and women were amusing themselves in the water at

A place called Patzcuaro.

They made off with the men’s capes and breechcloths

And they took the women’s skirts and huipiles.

The men no longer had breechcloths;

They went about with their bottoms bare,

Rather, they go about with their bottoms bare, uncovered.

The women gave up their blouses and the men became wearers

Of huipiles.

In this manner they abandoned the people of Michoacan.

III.

And the reason Huitzilopochtli went off and abandoned his

Sister, named Malinalxoch, along the way,

That all his fathers abandoned her while she was sleeping,

Was because she was cruel,

She was very evil.

She was an eater of people’s hearts,

An eater of people’s limbs—it was her work—

A bewitcher of people,

An enchanter of people.

She put people to sleep,

She made people eat snakes,

She made people eat scorpions,

She spoke to all the centipedes and spiders

And transformed herself into a sorcerers.

She was a very evil woman;

This was why Huitzilopochtli did not like her,

This was why he did not bring his sister, Malinalxoch, with him,

That they abandoned her and her fathers while they were sleeping.

Then the priest, Huitzilopochtli spoke,

He addressed his fathers, called the `idol-bearers,’ … he said to them,

`O my fathers, the work that Malinalxoch does is not my work.

When I came forth, when I was sent here,

I was given arrows and a shield,

For battle is my work.

And with my belly, with my head,

I shall confront the cities everywhere.

I shall await the peoples from the four directions,

I shall join battle with them,

I shall provide people with drink,

I shall provide people with food!

Here I shall bring together the diverse peoples,

And not in vain, for I shall conquer them,

That I may see the house of jade, the house of gold, the house of

quetzal feathers;

The house of emeralds, the house of coral, the house of amethysts;

The sundry feathers—the lovely cotinga feathers, the roseate

Spoonbill feathers, the trogon feathers—

All the precious feathers;

And the cacao of variegated colors,

And the cotton of variegated colors!

I shall see all this,

For in truth, it is my work,

It was for this that I was sent here.

And now, O my fathers, ready the provisions. Let us go!

Off there we are going to find it!…”

And when the sister of Huitzilopochtli, called Malinalxoch,

Whom they had abandoned while sleeping,

Whom they had gone off and abandoned,

When Malinalxoch awakened, she wept.

She said to her fathers, “O my fathers, where shall we go?

My brother Huitzilopochtli, had abandoned us by trickery.

Where has the evil one gone?

Let us seek the land where we are to dwell….”

Then they saw the mountain called Texcaltepetl;

They established themselves upon it….

Along the way Malinalxoch became big with child,

And the child of Malinalxoch, a son named Copil, was born.

His father’s name was Chimalquauhtli;

He was king of Malinalco….

IV.

The others settled at Coatepec….

The Mexicans erected their temple, the house of Huitzilopochtli…

And they laid down Huitzilopochtli’s ball court

And constructed his skull rack.

Then they blocked the ravine, the gorge.

And the water collected, it filled up.

This was done at the word of Huitzilopochtli.

Then he said to his fathers, the Mexicans,

“O my fathers, the water has collected.

Plant, sow, willows, bald cypresses, reeds, rushes and water-lilies!

And the fish, frogs, ajolotes, crayfish, dragonfly larvae,

Ahuihuitlame, ephydrids, and the salamanders multiplied,

And also Izcahuitli,

And the birds, ducks, American coots, and the “red-shouldered” and “yellow-throated” grackles.

And Huitzilopochtli said,

“The Izcahuitli are my flesh, my blood, my substance.”

Then he sang his song,

They all sang and danced;

The song was called Tlaxotecayotl and also Tecuilhuicuicatl;

He composed it there.

Then his fathers, the Centzonhuitznahua, spoke, they said to Huitzilopochtli,

“O priest, the work for which you came shall be done here.

You shall await the people,

You shall meet in battle the people from the four directions,

You shall arouse the cities.

With your belly, with your head,

And your heart, your blood, your substance,

You shall capture them,

That you may see what you promised us—

The many jades, the precious stones, the gold,

The quetzal feathers and sundry precious feathers,

The cacao of variegated colors,

The cotton of variegated colors,

The diverse flowers, the diverse fruits, the diverse riches.

For, in truth, you have founded,

You have become the ruler of your city, here in Coatepec.

Let your fathers, your vassals, the Aztecs, the Mexicans, gather

Here!” The Centzonhuitznahua beseeched him.

Huitzilopochtli became enraged,

“What are you saying?” he said.

“Do you know?

Is it your work?

Are you better than I?

I know what I must do!”

Then, atop the temple, his house, Huitzilopochtli began to array himself.

When he had arrayed himself,

When he had arrayed himself for battle,

He painted his face the color of a child’s excrement,

He made circles around his eyes,

And he took up his shield….

The he went off;

He went to destroy, he went to slay his uncles, the Centzonhuitznahua.

On the sacred ball court he devoured his uncles;

And his mother, she whom he took as his mother, called Coyolxauhcihuatl….

He cut her off head there and devoured her heart,

Huitzilopochtli devoured it….

The Mexicans were frightened.

The Centzonhuitznahua had thought that the city was to be there in Coatepec,

That Mexico was to be there,

But Huitzilopochtli did not want it so.

He made a hole in the dam where the water had been,

And the water broke the dam.

All the bald cypresses, willows, reeds, rushes and water lilies withered.

All the fish, frogs, ajolotes, ephydrids and insects,

And the crayfish and dragonfly larvae that lived in the water

Died….

And all the birds perished.

V.

Then Huitzilopochtli set out,

He went off with his fathers, his vassals, the Mexicans….

They came, they settled behind Chapultepec in a place called Techcatitlan….

Then Huitzilopochtli gave orders to the Mexicans….

He said to the idol-bearers,

“O my fathers, wait, for you shall see, wait, for I know what is to happen.

Gird yourselves, be courageous.

Gird yourselves, prepare yourselves.

We shall not dwell here,

We shall find the place off there,

There is where we shall posses it.

Let us await those who shall come to destroy us!…

…..

The son of Malinalxoch, sister of Huitzilopochtli, whose name was Copil,

Spoke, he said to her,

“O my mother, well I know that your brother is off there.”

“Yes, your uncle, named Huitzilopochtli, is yonder,” she said.

“He abandoned me,

He abandoned me by trickery along the way.

Then we settled here in Texcaltepeticpac.”

“Very well, O my mother,” said Copil.

“I know that I must look for him in the place he has found contentment,

In the place he has settled.

I shall destroy him,

I shall devour him,

And I shall destroy, I shall vanquish his fathers

And the vassals that he took with him.

Well I know all the gifts that are marked for him who is to see,

Who is to behold the manifold riches.

And it shall be I.

Mine shall be the knowledge of all the sundry jade and gold,

Of the quetzal feathers and the other feathers,

Of the cacao of variegated colors,

Of the cotton of variegated colors,

Of the diverse flowers and diverse fruits.

O my mother, be not sad.

I go now to seek out the evil one, my uncle….”

Then he came.

He arrayed himself, he adorned himself, he who was called Copil.

He was very evil,

He was a greater sorcerer than his mother, Malinalxoch;

Copil was a very evil man.

He came in the year 1-House, 1285

And in the place called Zoquitzinco he transformed himself.

Once more he came, and in the place called Atlapalco he transformed himself.

He came once again and in the place called Itztapaltemoc he transformed himself,

And because Copil transformed himself, because he turned himself into a flagstone,

It is now called, all of us call it, Itztapaltetitlan.

And after the transformation of Copil,

After Copil had transformed himself into a flagstone,

Once again he returned to his home called Texcaltepeticpac;

(they now call it Malinalco because Malinalxoch dwelt there….)

Once more Copil came…

And in the place called Tecpantzinco he transformed himself.

But Huitzilopochtli knew him at once,

He recognized his nephew, now grown, called Copil.

The he said to his fathers,

“O my fathers, array yourselves, adorn yourselves,

Me nephew, the evil one, is coming.

I am off.

I shall destroy him, I shall slay him!”

He encountered him at the place called Tepetzinco,

And when he saw him, he said,

“Who are you? Where are you from?”

“It is I,” he replied,

Again he spoke to him.

“Where is your home?”

“In Texcaltepeticpac,” he answered.

Then Huitzilopochtli said, “Good. Are you not he whom my sister,

Malinalxoch, brought into the world?”

“Yes, I am he,” Copil said,

“And I shall capture you, I shall destroy you!

Why did you abandon my mother while she was sleeping?

Why did you abandon her by trickery?

I shall slay you!”

“Very well,” Huitzilopochtli said, “Come ahead.”

They pursued each other with cunning,

And they captured Copil in Tepetzinco.

When he was dead Huitzilopochtli cut off his head and slashed open his chest,

And when he had slashed open his chest, he tore out his heart.

Then he placed his head on top of Tepetzintli, which is now called Acopilco,

And there the head of Copil died.

And after Huitzilopochtli slew him,

He ran off with Copil’s heart.

And the idol-bearer, called Quauhtlequetzqui came upon Huitzilopochtli.

When he encountered him, he said,

“You have wearied yourself, O priest.”

“Come, O Quauhtlequetzqui,” he said.

“Here is the heart of the evil one, Copil.

I have slain him.

Run with it into the rushes, into the reeds.

There you shall see the mat of stone

On which Quetzalcoatl rested when he went away,

And his seats, one red and one black.

There you shall halt

And you shall cast away the heart of Copil.”

Then Quauhtlequetzqui went off to cast away the heart.

When he came to the place he had described to him,

He saw the Mat of stone,

And he halted there and cast away the heart;

It fell in among the rushes, in among the reeds….

The place where Quauhcoatl stopped and cast away the heart,

We now call Tlalcocomoco….

VI.

Then the Mexicans went to Acuezcomac,

They passed through Huehuetlan, Atlixcan,

Teoculhuacan, Tepetocan, Huitzilac, Culhuacan,

Huixachtla, Cahualtepec, Tetlacuixomac.

They settled in Tlapitzahuayan in the year 2-Rabbit, 1286…

In the year 11-Reed, 1295… the Mexicans passed through Zacatla….

The people of Chalco drove them out,

They stoned them.

Once again they went to Chapultepec….

Behind Chapultepec all the Tepanecas, Azcapotzalcas and Culhuacans,

The Xochimilcas, Cuitlahuacas and Chalcas besieged the Mexicans….

The Mexicans were besieged in Chapultepec in 2-Reed, 1299.

Then the Mexicans moved to Acuezcomac….

Then they came, they settled in Mazatlan,

And all the Mexicans gathered in Tepetocan.

VII.

Then from there they went to Culhuacan.

Coxcoxtli was the king of Culhuacan….

Then Huitzilopochtli said to the Mexicans,

“My fathers, say to Coxcoxtli, `where shall we live?’”

They addressed Coxcoxtli, they said to him,

“O lord, O king, we are beseeching you.

Where shall we go?

We have known this to be your city.

Have mercy on us with a small piece of your land on which we may live!”

Coxcoxtli replied, he said, “Very well.”

He summoned his Culhuacan Chiefs, he said to them,

“Where shall they live?”

“O lord, O King, let them go there,” his chiefs said.

“Let the Mexicans live beside the mountain, here in Tizaapan.”

Then they took them, they established them in Tizaapan.

They advised Coxcoxtli, the king, they said,

“O lord, O king, we have taken the Mexicans to Tizaapan.”

“Good,” Coxcoxtli said, “They are monstrous, they are evil.

Perhaps they will meet their end there,

Perhaps they will be devoured by the snakes,

For it is the dwelling place of many snakes.”

But the Mexicans were overjoyed when they saw the snakes.

They cooked them,

They roasted them over the fire, and they ate them….

VIII

In the year 13-Reed, 1323,

The Mexicans had passed, had spent twenty-five years in Tizapan Culhuacan.

Then Huitzilopochtli spoke to his fathers, he said to them,

“O my fathers, another person shall appear whose name is Yaocihuatl.

She is my grandmother and we shall have her.

And hear this, O my chiefs, we are not to remain here.

We shall find the place off there.

There is where we shall possess it….

And now gird yourselves, make yourselves ready,

Foy you have heard the Yaocihuatl, my grandmother, will manifest herself there.

I command that you go,

That you ask Achitometl for his child, his daughter.

You are to ask him for his precious child,

For I know he shall give her to you.”

And then the Mexicans went off,

They went to ask Achitometl for his daughter.

The Mexicans spoke to him, they said,

“O my prince, O lord, O king, we your grandfathers, we your vassals, and all the Mexicans,

Pray that you grant, that you give us, your jewel, your quetzal feather,

Your daughter, our granddaughter, the princess.

There, beside the mountain in Tizaapan she will keep guard.”

Achitometl said, “Very well, O Mexicans, you may take her with you.”

He gave her to the Mexicans.

They went off with the daughter of Achitometl,

They brought her,

They settled her in Tizaapan.

Then Huitzilopochtli spoke… he said to them,

“O my fathers, I order you to slay the daughter of Achitometl

And to flay her.

When you have flayed her, you are to dress a priest in her skin.”

They then slew the princess and they flayed her,

And after they flayed her, they dressed a priest in her skin.

Huitzilopochtli then said,

“O my chiefs, go and summon Achitometl.”

The Mexicans went off, they went to summon him.

They said, “O our lord, O my grandson, O lord, O king…

Your grandfathers, the Mexicans beseech you, they say,

`May he come to see, may he come to greet the goddess.

We invite him.’”

Achitometl said, “Very well. Let us go.”

He said to his lords, “Let us go to Tizaapan,

The Mexicans have invited us….”

They took along rubber, copal, papers, flowers, and tabacco,

And also what is called the “lord’s food” to set down in offering

before the goddess….

And when Achitometl arrived in Tizaapan, the Mexicans said,

As they received him,

“You have wearied yourself, O my grandson, O lord, O king.

We, your grandfathers, we, your vassals, shall cause you to become ill.

May you see, ma you greet your goddess.”

“Very good, O my grandfathers,” he said.

He took the rubber, the copal, the flowers, the tabacco, and the food offering,

And he offered them to her,

He set them down before the false goddess whom they had flayed.

Then Achitometl tore off the heads of quail before his goddess;

He still did not see the person before whom he was decapitating the quail.

Then he made an offering of incense and the incense-burner

Blazed up,

And Achitometl saw a man in his daughter’s skin.

He was horror-struck.

He cried out, he shouted to his lords and to his vassals.

He said, “Who are they, eh, O Culhuacans?

Have you not seen?

They have flayed my daughter!

They shall not remain here, the fiends!

We shall slay them, we shall massacre them!

The evil ones shall be annihilated here!”

They began to fight….

The Culhuacan pursued them, they pursued the Mexicans,

They drove them into the water….

The Culhuacans thought that they had perished in the water,

But they crossed the water on their shields,

They crossed on their arrows and shields.

They bound together the arrows, called Tlacochtli,

And those called Tlatzontectli,

And, sitting upon them, they crossed the water….

And sitting upon the shields they crossed the water

When the Culhuacans pursued them.

And they came into the rushes, into the reeds at Mexicatzinco….

There they dried their battle gear which had become wet,

Their insignias, their shields—all their gear.

And their women and children began to weep.

They said, “Where shall we go? Let us remain here in the reeds….”

IX.

And then the old Mexicans, Quauhtlequtzqui, or Quauhcoatl,

And also the one called Axolohua went off,

They went into the rushes, into the reeds

At the place that is now called Toltzalan, Acatzalan;

The two of them went to look for the place they were to settle.

And when they came upon it,

They saw the many wondrous things there in the reeds.

This was the reason Huitzilopochtli had given his orders to the idol-bearers, his fathers,

Quauhtlequetzqui, or Quauhcoatl, and Axolohua, the priest.

For he had sent them off,

He had told them all that there was in the rushes, in the reeds,

And that there he, Huitzilopochtli, was to stand,

That there he was to keep guard.

He told them with his own lips,

Thus he sent off the Mexicans.

And then they saw the white bald cypresses, the white willows,

And the white reeds and the white rushes;

And also the white frogs, the white fish, and the white snakes

That lived there in the water.

And they saw the springs that joined;

The first spring faced east and was called Tleatl and Atlatlayan,

The second spring faced north and was called Matlalatl and also Tozpalatl.

And when they saw this the old men wept.

They said, “Perhaps it is to be here.

We have seen what the priest, Huitzilopochtli, described to us

When he sent us off.

He said, `In the rushes, in the reeds, you shall see many things.’

And now we have seen them, we have beheld them!

It has come true, his words when he sent us off have come true!”

Then they said,

“O Mexicans, let us go, for we have beheld them.

Let us await the word of the priest;

He knows how it shall be done.”

Then they came, they sojourned in Temazcaltitlan.

And during the night he saw him,

Huitzilopochtli appeared to the idol-bearer, called

Quauhtlequetzqui, or Quauhcoatl.

He said to him, “O Quauhcoatl, you have seen all there is in among the reeds,

In among the rushes,

You have beheld it.

But hear this:

There is something you still have not seen.

Go, go and look at the cactus,

And on it, standing on it, you shall see an eagle.

It is eating, it is warming itself in the sun,

And your heart will rejoice,

For it is the heart of Copil that you cast away

Where you halted in Tlalcocomoco.

There it fell, where you looked, at the edge of the spring,

Among the rushes, among the reeds.

And from Copil’s heart sprouted what is now called Tenochtli.

There we shall be, we shall keep guard,

We shall await, we shall meet the diverse peoples in battle.

With our bellies, with our heads,

With our arrows, with our shields,

We shall confront all who surround us

And we shall vanquish them all,

We shall make them captives,

And thus our city shall be established.

Mexico Tenochtitlan:

Where the Eagle Screeches

Where he spreads his wings,

Where the Eagle feeds,

Where the fish fly,

And where the Serpent is torn apart.

Mexico Tenochtitlan!

And many things shall come to pass.”

Then Quauhcoatl said to him, “Very well, Oh priest. Your heart has granted it.

Let all the old men, your fathers, hear.”

Then Quauhcoatl gathered the Mexicans together,

He had them hear the words of Huitzilopochtli;

The Mexicans listened.

And then, once more, they went in among the rushes, in among the reeds,

To the edge of the spring.

And when they came out into the reeds,

There at the edge of the spring, was the Tenochtli,

And they saw and Eagle on the Tenochtli, perched on it, standing on it.

It was eating something, it was feeding,

It was pecking at what it was eating.

And when the Eagle saw the Mexicans, he bowed his head low.

(They had only seen the Eagle from afar).

Its nest, its pallet, was of every kind of precious feather —

Of lovely cotinga feathers, roseate spoonbill feathers, quetzal feathers.

And they also saw strewn about the heads of sundry birds,

The head of precious birds strung together,

And some bird’s feet and bones.

And the god called out to them, he said to them,

“O Mexicans, it shall be here!”

(But the Mexicans did not see who spoke).

It is for this reason they call it Tenochtitlan.

And then the Mexicans wept, they said,

“O happy, O blessed are we!

We have beheld the city that shall be ours!

Let us go, now, let us rest….”

This was in the year 2-House, 1325

Typically, hieroglyphic stairways are part of the central or core elements of the elite ruling class, however, this was not the case at El Palmar because the building was located on the outskirts of the site, away from the center. The location of the stairway perplexed Javier: “For me, the discovery of the hieroglyphic stairway at El Palmar was a great surprise. When Kenichiro notified me of the architectural group away from the central zone, I assumed that it would be similar to El Resbalon in Quintana Roo, where Post-Classic inhabitants reused the abandoned city, taking apart the hieroglyphic stairway and using the carved blocks for new constructions, placing them out of order in other parts of the city”.

What Javier is referring to is yet another complex part of ancient Maya history. After the Classic period, there is a regional hiatus in writing, commemorative dates and construction. This initially led to the notion of the Maya “Collapse”. A term that has created more confusion than clarification since it implies the disappearance of a culture, but the Maya people never disappeared, and the term rather addresses a dissolution of government and society. Although we still don’t know much about the causes of the “collapse”, the following Post-Classic period, dated between 900-1200 A.D., was a time of major change. Many of the cities that were abandoned at the end of the Classic were re-occupied. Old palaces and sacred temples were used by newcomers, in many cases, they would re-utilize carved stones in new constructions, adding more confusion to modern archaeologists trying to “read” texts taken out of their original context.

The uniqueness of the Guzmán stairway is that it lies in the periphery of the main architectural group, since most hieroglyphic stairways have been found at the heart of major Classic Maya cities. Furthermore these stairways are associated with monumental structures surrounding huge plazas, but the Guzmán stairway was discovered in the smallest architectural group of the ancient city. It clearly was not a Post-Classic building and so we are looking at a new type of Maya sacred space, one that has not been previously documented and which may shed light into their history. At present, there are only about 20 other centers with hieroglyphic stairways in the Maya region, most of them have suffered changes through time, re-occupation, re-use of materials, and are difficult to read. In this regard the Guzmán group is not only unique, but also important in revealing new information on Maya society.

How was the Guzman Hieroglyphic Stairway Discovered?

A local informant discovered the Guzmán hieroglyphic stairway. Kenichiro recalls that “During the 2009 fieldwork season at the Main Group, one of our local workers, Mr. Gudiel Guzmán, told me that he had found two small carved stones while conducting slash and burn agriculture on his private land. Octavio, the project epigrapher, and I visited Mr. Guzmán´s land together. After a careful evaluation of these blocks, we realized that these were pieces of a hieroglyphic stairway”.

Despite the fact that most of the hieroglyphic stairway was still covered with debris and soil, Kenichiro and his team realized the stairway remnants were close to the surface, making these remarkable inscriptions highly vulnerable to looting. Therefore, a salvage excavation was extremely urgent.

“In the following 2010-11 field season, our project focus changed from the main group to the exploration and rescue of the Guzmán hieroglyphic stairway. The National Geographic Society, the American Philosophical Society, the University of Arizona, the Campeche INAH Center, and the National School of Anthropology and History, Mexico [ENAH], supported our project, under a permit provided by the National Institute of Anthropology and History [INAH]” Kenichiro said in a recent interview.

The excavation project that was soon to follow was no easy task. It required experienced archaeologists like Luz Evelia, whose previous works at the Sites of Dzibanche and Becán was essential to the success of the research. Their first task was to remove the overgrown jungle from the stairway and then to carefully excavate the monument without causing any damage to the fragile texts. Loosing a block could mean erasing part of history. What many don’t realize is that after the blocks are documented they need to be cared for by a team of conservators. At El Palmar, the conservation team included: Yareli Jáidar Benavides, from the National Coordination of Conservation of Cultural Heritage (CNCPC) of INAH, Diana Arano Recio and Leticia Jiménez Hernández from the Campeche INAH Center. It was the Institutional collaboration from the Director of the Campeche INAH Center, Lirio Guadalupe Suarez that provided the staff, lab, time and effort in preserving this spectacular find.

Source –  see full article “The Meaning of Words: New Evidence of Ancient Maya History“

1516 – The epidemic of smallpox in the Yucatan.

1517 - The expedition of Francisco Hernбndez de Cуrdoba. The squadron consisted of three small ships with 110 soldiers and sailors on board. First, he arrived at the Island of Women. Then they landed on Cape Kotoch where we had a clash with the Indians. The Spaniards lost in battle 26. There they captured an indian Melchior. From there, the Spaniards sailed to the Gulf of Campeche, where they landed on 23 February, and where they spent three days. March 22 – The Spaniards landed to replenish their water supplies. Attacked by Indians, they quickly retreated. A few days later the ships were in four-day storm and were forced to land on the shore near Champoton. Here was battle with the soldiers of local cacique. The battle lasted about four hours, there were killed 20 Spaniards, two were captured and sacrificed, and 50 people received serious injuries. Cordova himself received 33 wounds. Cordova died soon afterwards from his wounds (on Cuba).

1518 - Expedition of Juan de Grijalva. The squadron, consisting of four well-equipped boats, with two hundred soldiers and sailors on board, sailed on April 8. May 3 – The Spaniards landed on Cozumel island and named it Santa Cruz. Grijalva used the services of an interpreter, the Maya people taken away by Cordoba (Melchior). Then the Spaniards went to the Cape Katoch, and have probably seen the city of Tulum (itself). From there they turned back, along the coast. In Champoton they lost one man killed, 50 wounded. Grijalva himself was wounded by two arrows, and he knocked out half a tooth. Since then, on the Spanish maps the Champoton was named as “The city of evil battle”. In Cuba, the Governor Diego Velazquez dismissed Grijalva from all business and took his possessions. In 1523, aiming to quell the insurgent Indians in Nicaragua, Grijalva died in the first encounter, pierced by Indian arrows.

1519 - Expedition of Hernando Cortez. With 11 ships he sailed from Cuba. With him was a interpreter Melchior. With 10 ships he arrived to the northern coast of Cozumel. One ship, commanded by valet of Velasquez – Francisco de Morla, left the expedition in a storm. The storm had wrecked the steering wheel, and bore unguided ship until dawn, when the sailors saw their steering wheel, diving into the waves. Morla, an excellent swimmer, drove it to the ship. Later, all the ships met on the coast. On Cozumel Spanish pillaged abandoned village. In the forest they found the cacique’s wife with children. Then they persuaded the Indians to return. In one of the temples of the Spaniards put on the cross and the image of the Virgin Mary and persuaded the Indians to Christianity. Upon learning of Spaniards living in captivity among the Indians in six days’ journey Cortes persuaded one Indian to go with the letter. A brigantine and two ships were commanded to go there. Since the Indians stayed longer than the appointed time, the ships returned to Cozumel. The next day the ships set sail, but one of the ship sprang a leak and they had to go back. Aguilar received a letter, swam to the boat through channel between the Yucatan and Cozumel and met with the Spaniards. Guerrero at that time was about 80 leagues away. Cortez again began to preach the worship of the cross, and throw away the idols of the temples. Cortez went from there, going in passing in Campeche, and did not stop until Tabasco.

1526 - November 19 – Francisco de Montejo, handed the king a petition to justify the conquest of Yucatan benefits; on December 8, Emperor Charles V in Granada signed a contract with Montejo.

1527 - May – Montejo fleet left the port of San Lucas de Barameda and went to Santo Domingo. As part of the squadron were four ships: “San Jeronimo”, “Nicholas”, “La Gavarra” and another. There were 250 soldiers, not counting the crew of ships and officers.

In Santo Domingo Montejo loaded food and 53 horses.

September - Arrival at island Cozumel. Cacique of the Island, already familiar with the Spaniards had no resistance.

Near the village of Xelha were founded the first Spanish fort – Salamanca. With the help of residents of Xelha Spaniards quickly erected a temporary residence, the residence of the governor, warehouses, Arsenal and some semblance of fortifications. The selected area was very unhealthy. The Indians were not able for a long time to support and feed the Spanish garrison. Local stony fields gave very poor yields of maize. Spaniards also increased levies and requisitions. Indians in general have Gradually stopped supplying foreigners and fled through the forests. Among the Spaniards began the disease. Montejo has sent small detachments of cavalry throughout the county for getting food and pacification of rebellious Indians. Outposts of Indians appeared at the gates of Salamanca.

November - For two months the Spaniards did not go deep into the mainland, and this was the cause of many diseases and led to the death of 50 soldiers. During the unrest among the colonists of Salamanca, Montejo ordered the burning of their three ships to cut off the retreat. La Gavarra was sent to the West Indies for help.

Leaving 40 patients in Xelha, Montejo with 125 people went to the north. In some villages the Spaniards met peacefully indians carried gifts, food and drink, offered porters and guides. Other indian settlements met them with a hail of arrows and stones from the high fence and palisades. After all the Spaniards were left in peace, indians thouhgt that hunger and disease would complete the destruction. With great difficulty the Spaniards reached the field where they had to leave another 20 patients who were soon murdered by the Indians. After a short rest Montejo went on. In the coastal village of Xamanha they met Ah Naum Pat, Cozumel leader. He gave the Spanish food and boats, as well as acted as mediator in negotiations with the rulers of the province Ek’ab. In the city Ek’ab, the Spaniards were met with fruits and flowers. Spaniards stood here for nearly two months. Recovering from the hardships and collecting information about the surrounding areas, the Spaniards left Ekab and went to Conil and Kachi. But now at every step were met with an ambush of Maya soldiers. Montejo went to Chavak-ha, the provincial capital of Chik’in Chel. Cacique peacefully took the Spaniards, and gave them room for the night. By morning the city was abandoned, and later the Indians attacked the Spaniards. After a brief and fierce battle, in which the Spaniards lost 12 men, the Indians withdrew. The next day, cacique sent ambassadors, but the Spaniards did not understand them because of lack of good translators.

After that, Montejo left Chavak-ha, and moved south into Ak’e. He found the town deserted and plundered it. The next day, the Spaniards had to endure a battle with their new Indians. The battle lasted one and a half days. Were Killed more than 1200 Indians. The Spaniards, too, lost killed and wounded. Many horses and fighting dogs were killed. The Indians fled from the battlefield. Maya at a time of silent were waiting for further developments. With difficulty reflecting attack, Montejo led the remnants of his squad back to Xelha, past the ruins of Chichen Itza. Montejo had brought with him 60 men. Meanwhile, from Santo Domingo arrived a La Gavarra brig with the new colonists, food and equipment.

Past troubles were quickly forgotten, and Montejo has conceived a new campaign, this time south of the peninsula. Up to a hundred people, under the command of Avila, he send along the coast to the south. He took 20-30 soldiers and went by land. About two dozen people remained in the colony. They were on their own to build a sail boat and join Avila. After many days of arduous journey by land Montejo squad got to Chetumal Bay.

The provincial capital city of Chetumal was in two leagues from the coast. On the one hand it was surrounded by the bay, on the other – by lake. A march to town was only possible through a narrow corridor of land. It was here at this moment in the service of a local ruler was Gonzalo Guerrero. Montejo has decided to entice an apostate to his side. However, Guerrero chose to stay with Maya. Under his leadership, the streets and city squares were dug neatly nestled above traps for the Spanish cavalry, and everywhere rose the fence and barricades. Waters of the lake and the Gulf cruised huge flotilla of military boats. Knowing through his spies that Avila is 30 leagues north of Chetumal, Guerrero by agents assured him in a death of Montejo squad and Avila without much doubt hurried back to the north. Soon after he moved a Spanish settlement of Xelha into a more favorable location near the village of Xamanha.

Guerrero managed to convince Montejo thought about the death of Avila vessel on the reefs of the Yucatan coast. Montejo ordered to build a small brigantine, and set his own little party sailed to the mouth of the Ulua (Honduras). From there he returned to Salamanca sea, and saw in Xelha only the ruins of an abandoned Spanish settlement, finally became convinced of the death of Avila. Only on the island of Cozumel Indians told him what had happened, and soon they met with a group of Avila in the new colony at Xamanha.

1528 – mid – Montejo sailed to Mexico, where expected to get help from Cortez. But Cortez at this time had already been removed, and Montejo remained in Mexico.

1529 – rest of the Spaniards, who stayed in Yucatan, near Cozumel, were rescued.

1531 - Montejo began to recruit people and to buy guns and equipment required for the new campaign on the Yucatan. Meanwhile, Alonso de Avila, went to explore the mountain areas of Chiapas. From there, the Spanish squad went through a huge arc through the mountains, forests, rivers and wetlands right into Champoton. MON Kovoh which caused so much trouble to Cordova and Grijalva was already dead and his heirs have met the Spaniards much more friendly. Using this fact, Avila posted to Tabasco urgent report, which talked about his whereabouts and the overall situation in the Yucatan.

Soon came Montejo on several ships with four hundred soldiers. In Campeche was founded the new Spanish colony, once again named Salamanca. Montejo attempted to seize the northern coast of Yucatan. Caciques of provinces Rex Pec and Ah K’in Chel took the Spaniards peacefully. They went from the village to village, providing food and drink. Particularly rich and prosperous country found warlike cheley. When Montejo under the roar of cheers of huge crowds of Indians came into their capital – Tekoh, he decided to found another Spanish settlement. This proposal was met by governor with cold resistance. He politely but firmly advised foreigners search of happiness in the neighboring province Chuaka (Chikinchel), where the land is richer and more populous. Cacique gave them guides. Montejo himself remained in Tekoh.

Montejo the son decided not to camp in Chuaka nor in Ak’e and turned back to the province of the cupula. He won the cacique of the cupula and tried to invade the province of Ek’ab. Cacique of Ek’ab Ek’bosh defeated Spaniards and they quickly went to Chichen Itza, where they received assistance from the newly conquered cacique cupula. In the vicinity of the ruins of Chichen Itza local cacique met the Spaniards peacefully, and even gave his people to help build the first houses in the settlement. It was called Ciudad Real (in the short term they build a settlement, making the wooden houses, and roofs of palm leaves and the long straw, after Indians manner). Montejo-son divided surrounding land and distributed lots to the participants of conquest. In every lots there were 2-3 thousand Indians. In addition to brutal treatment, the oppression of the colonialists was especially unbearable because residents hardly provided food for themselves on depleted lands of Chichen Itza and paying a huge tribute to the Spaniards which meant true starvation. Maya seemed to take this innovation calm, but actually they were ready to defend their freedom. Some settlements have refused to pay tribute, while others went to an open struggle. Communication of Spaniards with the outside world was interrupted, and there was not enough food. Every attempt to escape from the siege led to a skirmish of Indians, in one of it were killed 150 Spaniards and hundreds of ally Indians.

Meanwhile, the governor of Nakon Cupul decided to do everything possible to expel foreigners from their possessions. First of all, he invented stories about the rich gold mines and placers in the southern areas of the peninsula – particularly in Bakalar. And it was a complete success. Montejo ordered Avila with a small detachment (16 horsemen and 50 foot soldiers) and the mine foreman to go to Chetumal via Cochvah and Vaymil (1531). For the discovery of gold had been promised a high reward. In addition, Avila received secret instructions to capture alive or dead traitor Guerrero. Part of the Avila squad finally reached Chetumal by canoe, carrying horses bound in pairs and rowing. They found the town deserted. Spaniards overtook the Indians fled in Chekitakile Chetumal, located several leagues above the coast. Avila attacked the Mayans in Chekintakile where the cacique of Vaymilya, apparently with the help of Guerrero, was preparing for war against the Spaniards. He managed to break the Maya, but the cacique and Guerrero fled. Here they found the first gold. After this event, the uprising swept the region. A revolt were led by Nachankan.

6 months after the founding of Ciudad Real a noble Indian tried to kill Montejo-son and was executed by the Spaniards. His execution was the occasion for an open uprising of Indians. To help the rebels arrived troops from the provinces Ek’ab, Kochvah, Sawtooth and Tas. Cheli and Xiu stayed on the side of the Spaniards. Spaniards had shamefully run away from the beleaguered Ciudad Real. The Spaniards took refuge in thickness of the stone walls of buildings of Chichen Itza and not risked more to appear in neighboring villages. Detachments of cavalry in search of food made periodically desperate raids on outlying besieged city. But everywhere they were met by the spears and arrows of the Maya. Many people were killed in battles, other mowed famine and disease. Finally, the Spaniards fled the town during the night, leaving a dog tied to the clapper, and a bit of bread at a distance that dog could not get it. They went to the north. The Indians have not slept and carefully prepared for the upcoming battle. At dawn, the Maya moved to the city walls. The city met the Indians quiet and with strikes of the bell. One young soldier cautiously made his way to the chapel and then cry with rage swept over the pyramids of Chichen Itza. The Indians went in different directions, cause they did not know which way the Spaniards fled. The Indians overtook the Spaniard with loud cries, but the six knights awaited them on the plains with spears and wounded many of them. One of the Indians grabbed the horse’s leg and held it like a ram. Spaniards arrived in Silan (from it to Campeche 48 leagues) in which the caciques was a young man of Cheley Na Mux Chel, already a Christian and a friend of the Spaniards. Close was Tekoh, and they were under the protection of their ally cacique Chel Poot (mid 1533). Violent attacks of Maya and lack of food and gunpowder drove Montejo and his son troops out, plunging all that is left on the ships, and return to Veracruz. Cacique of Silan and two of his cousins, the sons of cacique of Yobain, accompanied them to Campeche. Cacique of Silan died while coming back.

Meanwhile, Avila reached Chetumal. Suffering severe need of food supplies, Avila sent his messengers to the city with a request to give him honey, maize and poultry, as well as guides to gold deposits. Residents of the city said that foreigners will receive “a bird on the points of spears, and grains of maize on the tips of arrows.” Do not dare to enter in Chetumal, the Spaniards decided to look for gold in the vicinity. At each park connoisseurs of mining were the most thorough investigation – they dug pits, studied samples of local rocks, peering into the bed of streams. Failing notable success in their surveys, Avila planned to settle down for the winter in the Chetumal. After a fierce battle the Spaniards entered the burning city. The losses were great, but the Indians fled. In the house of one of the local lords the Spaniards found the jewels of almost 100 pesos – made of gold and turquoise, pearl inlaid ritual masks. Avila ordered to lay down their loot in a leather bag and accompanied by three riders and three Marines sent all the wealth in the camp of Montejo. Several days later, stopped at the camp near Chinante, a tiny squad was suddenly attacked by the Maya and completely destroyed. Gold returned to its former owner. Avila himself learned about it only after a year.

In Chetumal ten Spaniards have died from disease and wounds shortly after the entry into the city, the other ten were seriously ill. Avila has a total of 8 horses and a little gunpowder. The Indians furiously attacked the foreigners almost every day. This lasted nearly a year. Finally Avila attempted to break in Ciudad Real. As he left the in cover in place two dozen patients who are unable to withstand the hardships of the path. But in the province Cochvah Avila was again surrounded by Indians. The Spaniards, six were killed and dozens wounded. Survivors tortured thirst and hunger. With great difficulty they reached the city Tihozuko. However, all wells were blocked with stones and mud. All day Spaniards purged one of the sources, until finally, unable to drink. The water was such that with every drop they drank a drop of mud. Only here Avila learned that his boss had left the Yucatan. And a depleted squad turned back in Chetumal. Had to be fighting to break through the hostile villages, to overcome the marshy swamp, fight their way through virgin forests. In Chetumal small garrison rushed to meet the squad, believing that Avila is a welcome help. Maya allowed Avila freely to enter the city, and only then renewed their attacks. Since no stock in the camp no longer exists, it was decided to make a raft, loaded on them, all property and people break out of the water in Honduras. The Indians did not expect the appearance of the Spaniards in the Gulf, so they managed to escape from Chetumal. Happy sailing, and in the evenings pestered to the shore and graze the horses on scarce coastal meadows. Many soldiers have died in transit. Almost half the squad was suffering from serious illnesses. Finally, after a difficult and dangerous transition, which lasted nearly seven months, they reached the Spanish colony in Naco (1535).

1533 – a famine in the Yucatan. Drought came. Locusts appeared in over five years.

1536 – Because of this hunger Xiu decided to make a sacrifice at Chichen Itza, and asked permission from Cocom to pass on their land. Cocom cheated their positive response. They put all in a big house and set a fire, killing those who tried to escape.

1539 – Stelea after the end of the twentieth anniversary of “13 Ahau, erected in Evan.

1540 – Montejo handed over power to the conquest of Yucatan to son and no longer participate in hostilities. December 24 Montejo-son went to Champoton with nearly four hundred volunteers went through the river of Tabasco, and drove through the lagoon, Dos Bocas.

1541 – the beginning – when the unsuspecting Spaniards came to the pier Champoton, they were on all sides attacked by the Indians troops. The fight was brief and bloody. Leaving on a battlefield with dozens of dead, foreigners have fled to their ships. A few hours later they took revenge. Seeing as the Indians, removing dead ammunition and clothing, pulled her to himself, began to sing and dance right on the sand, the Spaniards, indignant, returned to shore. Champoton was taken, and its inhabitants retreated to Campeche. He stayed in Champoton. Residents of Champoton kept the Spaniards two years. During this time, Montejo-son could not go forward, so he met strong resistance. Then, after battles with the Indians, moved in Campeche and founded the city of St. Francisco (October 4). At the same time laid the church of Santa Maria de la Concepcion, now the cathedral. The first priest was Francisco Hernandez, a chaplain of Montejo.

With the help of the people of Campeche and Champoton, promising them that they will be rewarded for his great loyalty to the king (although the King has not fulfilled this promise), the Spaniards began the conquest of the province Chak’an and Rex Pec. Despite the fact that the caciques of the dynasty of Pec obedient, most villages have resistance to the Spaniards. Residents threw home, and filled the wells, constantly disturbing the Spanish with attacks.

1542 – January 6, on the ruins of Tihoo was founded Merida.

January 23 – the ruler of Mani Tutul Xiu personally went to Montejo-son, expressed resignation and offered to make available to the Spanish troops, food and women. Tutul Xiu sent to the governor on the Sawtooth Chi Cocom embassy with a proposal to submit to the Spaniards. At Chi Coc ordered to kill the messengers, but the most important, which is sent back to the gouged eyes, that he described as Cocom did with the traitors. After that, troops of provinces Sawtooth, cupula, Kochvah, Ek’ab and Chavak-ha came near to Merida.

June 11 at Merida occurred biggest ever campaign battle that lasted all day. Demoralized Indians returned to their provinces.

End of the year – the Spanish team went to Tekoh and tried to invade the province of the cupula, but met strong resistance, turned to Chavak ha.

1543 – May 28 – base of Valladolid squad Montejo-nephew.

The second unit went to the Sawtooth, the main military forces that killed at Merida. After a brief resistance by Chi Kok surrendered to the Spaniards and converted to Christianity.

1543 - Captain Sieza took Saki, the capital of the cupula, and executed the priests who attempted to organize resistance. Then were cuptured Ek’ab and Cozumel. After that, the main forces of the Spaniards were thrown against the province Kochvah. Was taken Tishhotsuk, residence at Hume Kochvah.

1543 – 1544 years. – Captain Gaspar Pacheco, his son Melchor and 30 soldiers, renowned for brutality, incredible even for the Spanish conquistadors, is directed against Chektamal. Resistance drowned in blood, and the whole province ravaged ground. Center of the Spaniards became the town of Salamanca de Bakalar. Maya in communications at the time said “as many men as women were killed with clubs and thrown into the lake tied to their feet the cargo in order to be drowned. Fierce dogs used in war torn parts of unarmed Indians. The Spaniards treated them (Indians) as a pet and they forced them to wear goods, and beat them like vile animals. It is said that they cut off hands and noses of many Indians. ”

1544 – Valladolid moved from the vicinity of Chavak-ha, where the terrain was unhealthy, in Saki.

Yucatan came under the jurisdiction of the Border audience, whose residence is in Grasis-a Dios (Honduras)

1545 - Arrival in Merida of the first Franciscan

1546 – November 9 – revolt in the provinces of the Cupul and Tas. The rebels killed the landlords and laid siege to Valladolid. One day they killed 17 Spaniards and 400 Indians their servants. The rebels immediately sent across the country hands and feet in a sign that they have committed to provoke revolt. But other provinces have not supported the uprising, and it was suppressed to move out of Merida Spanish troops who were trying to intimidate the Indian mass beatings and brutal executions. (1546-1547)

1547 – 1549 years. – Pacifying Bay Area Dulce.

1548 – Montejo was recalled to Spain and deposed.

1562 – July 12 – The auto-da-fe in the Mani.

August 12 – Arrival in Merida of the Bishop Francisco Toral.

Ever since its discovery by pioneers like archaeologist Matthew Stirling and artist Miguel Covarrabias, the age and nature of the Olmec culture have been the source of endless controversy. For a very long time, leading Mayanists were reluctant to grant it temporal priority over the Classic Maya, even though archaeological evidence outside the heartland showed that objects in Olmec style were stratigraphically very early, in fact Formative or Pre-Classic in date. It was only when the first radiocarbon dates on the major Olmec sites of La Venta and San Lorenzo were published that the Mayanists were proved completely wrong: the leading Maya authority of the time, Sir Eric Thompson, had underestimated the true age of the Olmec by about 2,000 years!

It is now clear that the most ancient, and the greatest, Olmec site is San Lorenzo, located just about in the center of the heartland. Its first inhabitants may have arrived there about 1400 ВС from the Pacific coast of Chiapas and Guatemala, but by 1200 ВС (in radiocarbon years), this great center was fully Olmec. It was ruled by powerful kings who could command the carving of multi-ton portrait heads from basalt that had to be imported from the Tuxtla Mountains to the northwest. The center of San Lorenzo is a great plateau, raised some 50 m above the surrounding plain and partly artificial, but the entire occupation is now known to cover no less than 500 ha. Until its downfall about 900 ВС, there was nothing remotely comparable to it in the rest of Mesoamerica. At that time, the much vaunted lowland Maya to the east were little more than hunters and gatherers who dabbled in agriculture; the polities of Oaxaca and the Valley of Mexico were small chiefdoms.

Here, and after 900 ВС, in La Venta, Olmec thinkers and artists developed Mesoamerica’s first religious iconography, with depictions of an array of deities in stone, pottery, jade, and almost certainly wood. These sacred symbols were imported along with pottery vessels and clay figurines that had been fired in San Lorenzo kilns, up into highland Mexican sites like Tlatilco and Las Bocas, and across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to the Soconusco region of the Pacific coast. During the Middle Formative period (900-400 ВС), much of this diffusion of Olmec patterns of culture involved the export of finely carved jade, perhaps largely from La Venta and its support area.

In its beauty and power, there is nothing quite like the Olmec art style, whether expressed in tiny jade figurines or in enormous basalt monuments. In spite of their great antiquity, the Olmec sculptures were the greatest ever seen in Mesoamerica. The strange beings depicted often combine feline features with those of humans – especially human infants; recent research is proving that some of the well-known gods of the Classic period can be traced back to Olmec beginnings.

Stirling and Covarrabias, together with the Mexican archaeologist Caso, claimed that Olmec civilization was the «mother culture» from which all later Mesoamerican civilization was ultimately derived. In recent years, some influential archaeologists who work in areas outside the heartland have put forward that the Olmec was only one of a number of so-called «sister civilizations», that there was nothing unique about the Olmec, and that the «Olmec style» was nothing more than a group of unrelated symbols that might have been invented by any one of the «sisters».

Suffice it to say that all recent archaeological data have conclusively proved that the «mother culture» theory can now be considered fact. All complex culture in prehispanic Mesoamerica has its roots in the Olmec heartland.

Dr. Michael D. Сое Professor Emeritus, Yale University, USA

The new study was the most inclusive and most accurate of these ongoing studies in Mesoamerica. It revealed four mega drought and dates when they happened.

Thus, one of these droughts, which, as previously thought, covered the territory of south-western United States, also applies to the territory of Central Mexico, and lasted from 1149 to 1167 AD. Thus, according to the head of a new study, David Stahle, paleoclimatologist at the University of Arkansas at Fayetteville, this drought could drastically reduce the harvest of maize, which probably was a fatal blow to the declining Toltec culture. He and his colleagues will publish the results of their research in «Geophysical Research Letters», a journal of the American Geophysical Union.

New data from the study were also more accurately recorded, and the other 2 long period of severe drought revealed to scientists. These data will help to look more precisely at the success of the formation of the Aztec empire and the spread of the exotic diseases brought by Spanish conquistadors.

This study also became the first independent confirmation of the existence of a drought late classical period – mega drought with which some anthropologists have linked the collapse of Mayan civilization. Previously, the prolonged dry period has been known through the analysis of sediments at the bottom of various lakes of Mexico and Caribbean coasts. However, the team got a more precise dating (897-922 AD) – also an area of drought was much wider than previously thought. Thus, the drought has also affected the highlands of central Mexico, where other civilizations have evolved in classical period.

“Certainly these cultural changes were very complicated — probably not one single explanation can account for the collapse of the Mayan civilization,” Stahle says. “[But] our study will allow other scientists to more thoroughly investigate and understand the impact of these droughts.”

In their study’s authors used data from 74 samples extracted from the core of 30 trees, millennium-old Montezuma baldcypress trees (Taxodium mucronatum). Samples were taken from trees growing in the canyon Amealco (Queretaro), located only 90 km from Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire, and 60 km northeast from Tula, the Toltec state’s main city. Stahle said that these trees, the relatives of the North American redwoods, the only Central American plants, which often live up to a thousand or more years.

“This is the national tree of Mexico, and it tells such an interesting story of the decline of the Mexican empires”, says Stahle, adding that previous tree chronologies for Mexico were only three to four centuries long. “This is the first one that goes back into pre-Hispanic times,”

Researchers have identified a year of each of the annual rings of a tree and analyzed them, which made it possible to obtain accurate data on soil moisture, in which there were trees and, accordingly, an abundance of rainfall in the year. “The beauty of tree rings is that they’re annual: you get an estimate for wetness for every single year — you don’t get it from other archives, not as precisely,” Stahle says.

“This research… highlights the role fine-grained climate data can play in helping us understand the trajectories of past human societies,” says David Anderson, an archaeologist at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville who was not involved in the new study. “This study will prompt a great deal of follow-up research by archaeologists and paleoclimatologists alike, and offers lessons for our own civilization — specifically how vulnerable complex societies may be to drought-induced crop failures.”

Source –  AGU

The city was founded, as believed, in the V-VI centuries and was one of the largest Mayan cities. By the end of X century, however, for unclear reasons, life here has virtually ceased. Buildings belonging to this period are mostly in the southern part of today’s Chichen Itza (sometimes the most southern part of town called Old Chichen Itza – Chichen Viejo). Then the city was occupied by Toltecs (this is one of the version – nowdays historians believe that there were influences but not invasion), who came to Yucatan from central Mexico (in 987 AD in the city there is the leader of the Toltec Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl, or, in Mayan, Kukulcan). The coming of the leader of the Toltecs, obviously, was not a peaceful event: in the inscriptions of Chichen Itza we are talking about the invasion of the invaders that overthrew the dynasty of the Maya. From the figures and inscriptions in the Temple of soldiers we can learn how the Toltecs came to power in the country, winning the first naval battle against the Maya, and then defeating them in battle on land in some city (perhaps in Chichen Itza). By winning, the Toltecs had enslaved their enemies, and their leaders were sacrificed to the sun god. Toltecs gave Chichen Itza a second life, and at least a century Toltecs of Chichen Itza maintained contact with the Toltecs of Tula. Based in Chichen Itza, the Toltec and allied with the tribes soon extended its influence over much of the Yucatan Peninsula. Anyway, the other major centers of this region – Uxmal, Mayapan – also bear the stamp of Toltec dominance or mixed Mayan-Toltec features in religion, architecture and sculpture. The conquerors brought with them new customs and ceremonies, the new features in the architecture, arts, and religion. The population of the city, according to various estimates ranged from 20,000 to 30,000 inhabitants. In times of Toltec was formed the northern part of the Chichen Itza city. With the growth of other political power centers in the Yucatan, Chichen Itza hegemony increasingly causes them displeasure. The rulers of Chichen Itza demanded from neighbors new tributes and imposts. The situation changed at the beginning of the XIII century – Chichen Itza troops were defeated in the decisive battle by the force of three cities (Itzmal, Mayapan and Uxmal). By the end of XIV century the town fell into decline and once again deserted.

The most famous religious buildings in Chichen Itza – huge ball court, Cenote, and of course the famous El Castillo, the Temple of Kukulkan.

Period from 1200 to 1540 AD. Is era of conflict, when tribal alliances were torn and happened a series of armed clashes that have divided people, that even more emasculated culture. Yucatan comes into an era of fragmentation and decline. There was formed various states such as Campeche, Champutun, Chikinchel, Ekab, Chetumal, etc. These states constantly at war with each other and when the Spaniards arrived in the area of the Maya, the large ceremonial centers have been abandoned, and Culture was in full decline.

Classical Age – the time the true heyday of the Maya, in Guatemala, the mountain, as in Petén, and the north of Yucatan. There is the classical culture of the Maya hieroglyphic writing developed, erected cyclopean limestone buildings. There is a flourishing of sciences – astronomy, mathematics and medicine. In the Classic period Maya there own elements in the architecture, such as, for example, the false arch, terraces, stucco decorations, crests on the ridge, which, mixing, led to the fact that the architecture is called the style of Peten. It is characterized by structures on the foundation of stepped terraces, thick walls, stairs outside the front of the building, the high ridges above the rear wall and the stucco decoration in the form of grotesque masks. In Guatemala, replace one another powerful dynasty of native Mayan rulers – at the beginning of the late period of classical era is the rise of Tikal. During the period of greatest prosperity of the city, in 7-8 cc., erected its main architectural ensembles, such as: the main square, the north acropolis, a temple platform 1 – 5. By the 8th century the population of Tikal was estimated from 10000 to 11000 people. In Tikal and other religious centers of the Mayan cities lived rulers and representatives of the priesthood. Ordinary people did not live in the “city”. In vicinity Maya “cities” had 50 – 100 villages (data of M. Coe). Another great city of the Maya – Copan, now the territory of Honduras, is notable for his sculptures, made of tuff. The set of images of deities of maize, the hieroglyphic stele with the dates of their buildings, altars … Not far from Copan, Guatemala, is located the east “city” Quirigua. This site is no less remarkable than Copan and pretty with its architectural style (similar). The most majestic monument of Quirigua is undoubtedly the Stele “E”, reaching an impressive height and covered with fine reliefs having Baroque redundancy. Apparently Quirigua was the principal city of the region, and Copan was its protectorate. Copan is a unique city. Stephens called it “the valley of wonder and romance.” In Copan territory lived about 200 000 people (around the site). Between 756 and 771 AD there were built three temples up to 30 meters each. Of the attractions of “city” – the Temple of Venus, its “hieroglyphic stairway” covered by 2 000 characters (this is the longest of the texts of the Maya) and the largest in the southern Maya area ball court.

The ritual ball game was important in the religion of the Maya. Virtually every major Mayan settlement had one or more similar court. It is usually a small rectangular box on the sides of which are pyramid-shaped platform on which the priests watched the departure of the ritual. Meanwhile, it was a cult game. In the Popol Vuh, “priceless vault of Mayan myths ball game is referred to as the game of the gods: it was used for competition between the deity of the death Bolon Tiku (or as they are called in the text the Lord of Xibalba, the underworld that is), and two brothers – Hunahpú and Xbalanque. Thus, players initiated one of the episodes of the struggle between good and evil, light and dark, masculine and feminine, the serpent and the jaguar. Large playgrounds for ball games are in Copan, Kaminaljuyu, Zaculeu, Uxmal, Chichen Itza. In the classical era that ritual was distributed throughout the Maya, but in Landas relacion there is no mention about this game, and, apparently, by the time of arrival of the Spaniards it was not practiced. As for Mayan states of the classical era we have fairly scarce information. We have very detailed information about the names of rulers, some dates, but we know little about the internal politics of these States and know little about the contours of their borders.

End of the Classical period.

But the true greatness Maya “city” reached in 8-9 centuries. Tikal defeated Calakmul, and begins to rule over the Peten. At the same time in the Usumacinta river basin thrive Palenque, Bonampak, Yaxchilan, Piedras Negras. In these places, the art of the Maya reached the zenith. At Bonampak murals are gorgeous, which tell of the victory of a local ruler over the Yaxchilan army. Of these murals, we can gather a lot of information about the political system of the Maya, how they fought, as they bring sacrifices to their gods, how they celebrated. In the first mural we see a battle between soldiers of Bonampak and Yaxchilan. Apparently, this was one of the greatest battles of the time. Then we see a scene of captives sacrifice; on the pyramidal platform is the ruler of Bonampak, overseeing the execution of noble captives. And at the last fresco in this series depicts the celebration of a certain religious holiday. These frescoes were a sensation in the scientific world when they were found in 1946, the first explorer of the murals was a photographer J. Healy. Apparently murals were created in the mid-9^th AD. For a thousand years they have not lost the brightness of colors.

By the studies of the Mayan language was concluded that roughly about 2500-2000 BC in the area of modern Huehuetenango (Guatemala) there was a group of proto maya whose members speak the same language, also called investigators proto maya. Over time, this language was divided into various Mayan languages. Subsequently, the speakers of these languages have emigrated and settled in different areas, which later formed the Maya area and there was a high culture.

Population migration has led to a distancing of different groups, and to converge them with other cultures. This has generated a number of different theories as to what place could be called the cradle of Mayan culture. For some researchers are north and south of Veracruz, Tabasco, a place where groups of Mayan contact with the Olmecs. The second theory is inclined to think that this culture originated in the mountains of Guatemala, where was formed an agricultural society, which grow corn and also experienced the impact of culture Olmec. Olmec culture is believed to be a mother culture because it originated the elements that formed the basis for the development of other major cultures of Mesoamerica.

Periods of Maya culture is similar to the chronology of all of Mesoamerica, although more accurate due to time deciphering hieroglyphs and their comparison with the modern calendar.

Mayan civilization was at the Mexican Yucatan peninsula and at mountains of Guatemala. In Maya area have developed three major linguistic groups: the Yucatec, Tzeltal, and quiche. At the beginning of 1000 AD Quiche were the most powerful union of the Mayan tribes. Mayan tribes began their development about the 2nd millennium BC. It was a period in Maya history, which is now called archaic. During this period, the Yucatan and adjacent areas have replaced each other two cultures – “Ocos” and “Cuadros”, while there were fine ceramics, pottery surface was covered with stamped pattern of the bands that created with the help of agave fibers. Of that time archeologists found stone Metate and mano, ceramic sinkers.

The history of Maya starts in period from 500 BC through 300 AD – Mayan culture begins its formation. This is especially noticeable on the clay humanoid figurines, where there are physical characteristics of the population of that era. Sample are also ornaments, decorating first buildings of Maya. In that period in the southern regions of Guatemala begins to appear larger cult centers. Rapidly evolving Izapa on the Pacific coast and mountain region of Guatemala. In the Late Archaic period appears Kaminaljuyu – an ancient center of Mayan culture, not far from the Ciudad de Guatemala. At the end of phase “Mam” in Petén there are small settlements Uaxactun and Tikal. In Izapa develops the Maya religion, and it is now different from the primitive beliefs. There is the image of the night deity and the deity of rain, later known as Chac, “long lip god.” In Izapa were found a huge number of stelae depicting that deity.

Sure, izapa culture became the harbinger of the future greatness of the Maya. Her artistic styles were used as the foundation of the Mayan civilization. What appeared originally in the Izapa, later were spread over a vast area – Yucatan, Peten and east of Mexico.

At this time in Guatemala, emerges culture of “Miraflores”, and it is likely that Izapa become a military adversary of Kaminaljuyu. To the north at that same time there was a contact of the Olmec and Mayan cultures. By 1st century AD all traces of the Olmec culture completely disappeared, the decline of which began three centuries earlier.

In the early pre-classical period the Mayan society were made up of families, united by one language, customs and territory. They combined for soil cultivation and fishing, hunting and gathering the food production for survival. Later, with the development of agriculture, irrigation systems were built and expanded the range of crops, some of which was already on sale. Accelerated the population growth, the construction of cities and large ceremonial centers.

From Pre-Classical period, the Maya began to build separate facilities, in which is guessed influence of other cultures. Later, Maya architecture became to express the mystical and religious ideas, so in the inner cities were built temples and palaces, courts for ball games, and residential buildings were located in the vicinity.

250 AD. Start of early classical period. In this year of Teotihuacan and Kaminaljuyu emerging trading alliance with Tikal. In 400 AD Kaminaljuyu completely falls under the authority of Teotihuacan merchants pochteka – people of teotihuacan come into the city and in its place construct a miniature copy of his capital, which became a south-eastern outpost of the empire. Thus was born the culture of Esperanza, which gave impetus to the development of all States of the Mayans. Teotihuacan traditions enrich the culture of “Miraflores”.

During the phase of “Esperanza” a mountainous region of the Maya is under the protectorate of Teotihuacan dynasties and of course under the influence of Teotihuacan art styles. Then, to the north of Kaminalhuyu begins to be erected first cyclopean structures of the Maya, which served as the mausoleums of the Teotihuacan “governors” – pochteka. The hallmark of this stage is the fine Orange ceramics. It is covered with geometric designs, obviously by Teotihuacan origin. At this period appears tripod vessels. These products were distributed and popular in central Mexico. Later, when the Teotihuacan hegemony in the lands of the Maya is completed, the stage of “Esperanza” transfers to no less significant stage in the history of the Maya – tzakol. During the phase “tzakol” influence of the culture of Teotihuacan on the mountainous region of Peten Maya is still strong. Tikal becomes a protectorate of Teotihuacan. Throughout the Peten Teotihuacan spread the cult of the gods, such as Tlaloc. It sees similarities with the Maya god of rain, Chaac, one of the major deities of the Maya pantheon.

Meanwhile in the Yucatan North there was not found any influence of Teotihuacan. In Yucatan is developing a completely original Mayan culture. During this period, when the south was under the rule of Teotihuacan, north also begins to evolve rapidly. In Northern Petén starts to appear one after the other major religious and culture centers. And although the influence of Teotihuacan to the north of the Yucatan is not very large, at the settlement Acanceh there were found many steles depicting Tlaloc. By sunset of the phase “Esperanza” in the western regions of El Salvador and Honduras, appears a mysterious culture “kotzumalhuapa, whose foundations were laid by Pipil tribes – the descendants of Teotihuacan conquerors. This nation was the most susceptible to the Teotihuacan culture. They have adopted their beliefs and art. In the settlement of this stage can be seen images of Tlaloc, Quetzalcoatl, illustrations to Teotihuacan myths, art motifs, prevalent in Teotihuacan.

3 centuries earlier the fall of Teotihuacan, about 300 AD, influence of the city in the lands of the Maya empire falls.

More than 200 years, the tribe of the Aztecs wandered in search of their new home before they settled on two islands of Lake Texcoco. Mythological and historical sources indicate that the Aztecs first reached mythical starting point Chicomoztoc (”Seven Caves”) (Chicomoztoc served as a “transit” point for many wandering tribes, for example tlaxcaltecs, tepanecs, Chalco), and from then went on a long travel south to more fertile lands of the Valley of Mexico.

Before they get to the Valley of Mexico, they often stayed for long time: erected temples, settled down internal tribal conflicts. Its first sanctuary, they erected on the hill of Chapultepec (”grasshopper hill”), owned by the city-state Azcapotzalco, where they lived from 1253 to 1295 AD. The first celebration of the New Fire, they celebrated in Coatepec, the second – in Apatzco (in the Valley of Mexico), the third – in Tezpayocan (on the shores of Lake Texcoco), and a fourth – in Chapultepec (Lake Xochimilco).

Many tribes which lived around the lake have met them very unfriendly (they called them “people without a face”) and led the fight to them. In the Valley of Mexico the Aztecs were attacked by a coalition of coastal cities, caught up and exiled as slaves in Culhuacan (Culhua – “the place of those who have ancestors”) – there they were warriors, mercenaries, and later for their courage they deserve honor and respect. But in 1322 Culhuacan drove them from their lands, and the Aztecs moved inside of the lake in the swampy islands. According to another version, they get independence and leave the area – Tizapan (“at chalky water”).

In 1325 on a small island in Lake Texcoco in reality Aztecs saw an ancient prophecy, which was revealed to the chief Tenoch – the main Aztec god Huitzilopochtli had predicted them to settle where they saw an eagle holding a snake in its claws, and sitting on a cactus. In the same year the capital of a future founded the Aztec empire – Tenochtitlan was founded, named after the legendary leader Tenoch (hence another name for the Aztecs – tenochca). There is another translation of the name of the city – “a place where cactus grows on a rock.” Later the city were divided into 4 quarters: Teopan, Moyotlan, Cuepopan and Aztacalco, and in the middle of the city was located a giant ceremonial center.

Foundation of Tenochtitlan (1325)

In 1337, north of Tenochtitlan Aztec group, separated from the main tribe and founded City of Tlatelolco.

In 1348, a war with tepanecs during which were destroyed many manuscripts from the Texcoco royal archives.

In 1359 Cholula was conquered by the kingdom Huexotzingo.

In 1375 the Azcapotzalco ruler authorized the Aztecs to elect formally their own ruler, and in the period between 1375 and 1376 the Aztecs elect a first supreme leader – Acamapichtli (1376-1395). During his reign, he strengthen political position of the Aztecs strengthened both external and internal.

Probably in 1390 was founded the Great Temple, dedicated to Huitzilopochtli, but it is likely it could be built earlier.

In 1395 Acamapichtli dies (after his death, a period of troubles), his successor becomes Huitzilihuitl (1395-1405/14).

In 1405/14 (the one given in 1405, on the other – in 1414) the third emperor of the Aztecs became Chimalpopoca (1405/14-1428), brother of Huitzilihuitl. He approved a complex system of dynastic succession. Tlatoani (supreme ruler) was elected by four military commander appointed by the Supreme Council. They could choose tlatoani among brothers of died tlatoani, and if they were not, among the sons and nephews in the male line.

By 1418 tepanecs of Azcapotzalco conquer the entire area Texcoco.

In 1428, came to power Itzcoatl (1428-1440).

Itzcoatl Emperor and his nephew (or brother) Tlacaelel (advisor of the emperor) was the first who officially sanctioned the practice of sacrifice. Identifying the main Aztec god Huitzilopochtli as the sun, they must periodically feed the heavenly body of fresh human blood, so it did not stop its motion path across the sky.

In the same year Azcapotzalco opposed Tenochtitlan, but the Aztecs created an alliance with the Tlatelolco, Tlacopan, Texcoco, Tlaxcala, Huexotzingo and eventually defeated tepanecs of Azcapotzalco in 1430.

Azcapotzalco tepanecs defeated in 1430

Itzcoatl reign (1428-1440)

In 1440, Montezuma I came to power (1440-1469). During his rule sacrifices in the form of fights between captive enemies became popular. If during such bouts captives showed courage and provided stubborn resistance, priests awarded valuable gifts to one who captivated them. In this form of sacrifice also appeared a political subtext – Montezuma I often invited to such fights leaders of the not yet conquered kingdoms.

Between Triple Alliance and other city-states – Tlaxcala, Huexotzingo, Cholula – by mutual agreement there were the “war of flowers”, the main purpose was to get prisoners to offering a sacrifice to the Sun.

Aztec Empire acquired new lands and needed administrative reforms. There was introduced a special order management, new rules to promote the social ladder. Montezuma I laid the foundations of the judicial system distinct from community and clan law. Tlatoani still retain their deified status, and the ongoing process of concentration in the hands of the ruler of the military, political, religious, ideological, legislative and judicial branches.

In the mid-15 th century the Aztecs continued to equip his capital and built a huge dam across the lake, which can supply the inhabitants of Tenochtitlan with fresh water and protect the city from flooding. Aztecs built the first aqueduct to the city.

Motecuhzoma I reign (1440-1469)

In 1446 they conduct military operations against the Confederation of Chalco-Amecamecan.

From 1450 to 1454 AD Aztecs were a subject of natural disaster: there were prolonged droughts and untimely frosts. The result of it was famine and disease – many people died. There have been numerous cases of cannibalism.

1458 – conquest of Veracruz and Coixtlahuaca.

In 1465 the Aztecs defeat the Chalco and conquer them.

1467 – was born a son of Axayacatl, the grandson of Montezuma I – the future ruler of Tenochtitlan, Montezuma II Xocoyotzin.

In 1469, came to power Axayacatl (1469-1481) and in 1473 he conquered Tlatelolco, after the ruler of this city Mociuxtli declares its independence.

In the 1470-1480-ies. Aztecs gain a series of military victories and extend the western boundaries of the empire: in 1476 they conquered the Valley of Toluca.

In 1481, Tizoc Calchihutlatonac, grandson of Montezuma I, became the Aztec emperor (”pierced Emerald) (1481-1486) – during his reign empire experience its heyday. After 2 years from the beginning of his reign, he decides to rebuild the pyramid, dedicated to Huitzilopochtli (Great Temple). He decided to make Temple a significantly higher, grander and more powerful – it took a lot of human resources: not only the adult population of the city and the slaves worked under the construction of the temple, but also children.

In 1486 Tizoc was poisoned (this is assumption) and the Emperor became the third grandson of Montezuma I – Ahuitzotl (1486-1502). He had become famous as an outstanding military leader. The next year (Feb. 19, 1487) was completed the construction of the Great Temple. In honor of the temple Aztecs invited tribal leaders who belonged to the empire, which brought a lot of subjects to sacrifice. There have also been festively decorated all the temples in Tenochtitlan at that time (about 300). The first one who tore the victim’s heart and handed it to the priest was the emperor himself. At the same moment in all the temples in the city started a mass sacrifice, which lasted from morning until late evening. Feast lasted 3 days. According to various estimates, there was from 4000 to 80,600 sacrificed men (but it seems more accurate figure of 20,000 prisoners).

During his reign Ahuitzotl was forced to do the construction of irrigation and drainage facilities, due to the periodic lack of food and fresh water in Tenochtitlan (the city’s population was growing rapidly). Thus, the second aqueduct was built in the city.

Ahuitzotl reign (1486-1502)

Solar eclipse occurs which scared all the inhabitants of the empire.

In the same year died the great commander of the empire – Tlacaelel – he was 98 years old.

By early 16th century the city-states which conquered by triple alliance in the early days of the Alliance, are deeply integrated into the imperial structure – the rulers of these cities participated in the wars of conquest, organized by Aztecs and received for this award in the form of titles and lands. The triple alliance comprised of about 50 city-states and subordinated to more than 400 villages. There was 38 provinces from which aztecs collect tribute.

In 1502, came to power Montezuma Xocoyotzin (”young”) (Montezuma II – 1502-1520), son of Axayacatl. During his reign, the empire has mainly been engaged not only in capture new lands, but the consolidation of previously captured and the suppression of uprisings and revolts. Montezuma II was unable to as his predecessor to win the west Tarascan, and on the east tlaxcaltecs (the latter provided military assistance to the Spanish conquistadors, united with them against Aztec).

Montezuma II left a memory of himself as a consummate diplomat. He continued the policy of military expansion, but his policies differ from the policies of his predecessors. In place of a lightning attack came the successive events on the active inclusion of different peoples in the economic life of the country. During his reign into state were included numerous enclaves, as a result – the Triple Alliance territory covered all of central Mexico, including Veracruz, Hidalgo, Puebla, Mexico, Morelos and partially Guerrero, Oaxaca and Chiapas. In Tenochtitlan was built a special temple, where were the statues of the gods of the conquered tribes.

During this period, continued the practice of mass sacrifice – it is known for us that once Montezuma II ordered in one day to sacrifice more than 1000 prisoners.

In 1503, the Aztecs begin anew protracted and bloody war against Oaxaca. Montezuma II attacks mixtec city Achiotlan and Xaltepec. This year heavy rains flood the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.

In 1504 the Aztecs carried out military action against the enclave of Puebla.

From 1505 to 1509 Aztecs begin a military campaign against the cities Quetzaltepec, Tototepec, Teuctepec, Miauatlan, Yanuetlan and Zozallan.

In 1509, the Aztecs in horror were watching the comet.

In the years 1511-1512 Aztecs defeated in the war against Oaxaca.

In 1514 there happened natural disasters as drought and severe cold that perished the harvest and after it begins hunger.

In 1515 starts the rebel of Ixtlilxochitl. The war began Texcoco vs Tlaxcala.

Arose rumors about the appearance of the bearded white men.

In 1518, Juan de Grijalva on four well-equipped ships, made an expedition to the Yucatan Peninsula, and then, on his return to Cuba, he sailed along the coast of the Aztec Empire.

1519 – Aztecs conquered the capital of the Totonac – Zempoala.

By this time period the empire has already a huge territory with a variety of rich natural resources of the northern regions of Mexico to the current boundaries of Guatemala: arid areas north of the Valley of Mexico, mountain gorges of the current state of Oaxaca and Guerrero, coastal Gulf of Mexico, Pacific ridges.

By this time the Aztecs Tenochtitlan has become one of the largest cities in the world with a population of 150-200 thousand people and has become a huge trading center with a large market in the satellite city of Tlatelolco, where in the trading day attended up to 25 thousand people. The second largest city of the empire was Texcoco with a population of 30,000 people. In many other cities population were of 10-25 thousand people.

In 1519 began the expedition of Hernando Cortez. He sailed from Cuba on February 18 with 11 ships on board which were 508 soldiers, 16 horses and a few guns. First he sailed with 10 ships to Cozumel. He then rounded the Yucatan Peninsula and sailed to the Mexican coast, where he founded the city of Veracruz.

After the arrival of the Spaniards, the Aztec emperor was brought the report: “The gods have returned. Their spears spewing flames. Their warriors has two heads and six legs, and they live in floating homes.” Montezuma expected performance of the ancient prophecy of the return of Quetzalcoatl in the year Ce Acatl (year of cane rod), which corresponded to 1519. During the ten years prior to this event in the Aztec empire was 8 omens of an impending disaster:

- Every night during the year the flames appeared in the eastern sky.

- For unexplained reasons, was burned the temple of Huitzilopochtli in Tlacateccan.

- Lightning struck a temple of Xiutecuhtli in Tzonmolco.

- One afternoon there was a comet, collapsed into three parts.

- The water in Lake Texcoco boiled up and destroyed the surrounding houses.

- One night a voice of weeping woman was heard: “My dear children, we must go! Where can I take you?” (Florentine Codice).

- One fisherman caught heron, tufted in the form of a mirror in which Montezuma saw the heavens and the army, riding on animals like deer.

- There were found people with two heads and one torso, which then mysteriously disappeared.

During his stay on the Gulf Coast, Cortez repeatedly clashed with local tribes, but the force of arms of the Indians were not comparable to European – powder did the trick. Meanwhile, Montezuma received the reports, which said that white people shooting lightning and dressed in armor made of silver and stone, and can not be defeated in open battle. To somehow appease the “gods” Montezuma sends Cortez different gifts. But the Spaniards were not ready yet to go to Tenochtitlan. Constant skirmishes took their toll – the bread, bacon and salt were in the end, the soldiers are tired of wearing heavy armor, and many were afraid of freezing in the mountains, as well as they were afraid a huge Aztec army. However, Cortes was not going to come back with empty hands and the desire for easy and quick gains, as well as the speaking skills of leader of the Spaniards, have convinced all to take a march on Tenochtitlan.

August 16, 1519 the Spaniards began their march on the capital of the Aztec empire, which lies about 450 kilometers to the west. Along the way they were joined by several thousand Indians.

Escaped from the town Cortes had no intention of giving up. Build ships and trusting to luck, allies, gunpowder, horses and iron, led this united army to attack Tenochtitlan.

August 13, 1521 the Spaniards captured Tenochtitlan, together with the latest tlatoani Cuauhtemoc and several of his supreme advisors. Subsequently, Tenochtitlan was completely looted and destroyed, Cuauhtémoc was executed (in 1525), and the Aztec empire was completely conquered by the Spaniards.

Aztec rulers (years of reign):

Acamapichtli (1376-1395)

Huitziliuitl (1395-1405/14)

Chimalpopoca (1405/14-1428)

Itzcoatl (1428-1440)

Montezuma I (1440-1469)

Axayacatl (1469-1481)

Tizoc (1481-1486)

Ahuizotl (1486-1502)

Montezuma II (1502-1520)

Cuitlahuac (1520-1520)

Cuauhtémoc (1520-1521)

The first sedentary settlements in various parts of Oaxaca appeared between 1500 and 1400 BC – These were mostly rural areas. In the period between 1150 and 850 BC the largest settlement in Oaxaca was a San Jose Mogote, which consisted of 80-120 houses – at the site were found crops of maize, chilies and avocados.

Starting from 850 BC the first early towns grew, which were ceremonial and administrative center, where a monumental buildings were created. Defensive walls were erected, underground tunnels were built. Outside the city limits around these centers in the vast expanse were located communal settlements. However, during the period of Rozario (700-500 BC), in the valley of Oaxaca are no archaeological evidence of the elements of the state as such.

Not later than 600 BC in the Valley of Oaxaca Zapotecs formed their own writing, which is older than the Mayan and Mixtecs. At this time the Zapotec are starting to use calendar. There are the first monuments of Zapotec civilization with symbolic signs.

500 +/- BC. – Year of Monte Alban foundation. In the so-called period of the Monte Alban I (500 – 200 BC) is the emergence and formation of Zapotec state in the valley of Oaxaca. During this period were covered with carvings, dedicated to military issues, over 300 stone monuments.

In the period between 250 and 1 BC in Monte Alban was built Building J – it was called so later because of the similarity in shape with a given letter of the alphabet. At this time, the city’s population was about 10,000 residents.

200 BC – 100 AD – Phase Monte Alban II. Zapotec had already formed their own state and the city of Monte Alban was the administrative center of the valley and it covers an area of more than 1 km². City of San Jose Mogote occupied an area of just over 70 hectares and was the smaller territorial center.

100 – 300 AD Monte Alban occupies an area of over 40 km². During this time, conventionally known as Phase III-a, in the town was erected a truncated pyramid, which includes eight monuments. In six of these monuments are shown signs of mountains and captives. Two of the monument made in a characteristic style of Teotihuacan.

In 300 – 650 AD in the capital of the Zapotec were already lined up all the major temples and 170 underground tombs with frescoes. According to various estimates, the city population was 50000 people.

600 – 700 AD – End of Phase III-b and the beginning of Phase IV. Zapotecs carved on stone monuments a little signs – a new kind of non-military lineage records, where they describe birthdays, marriages and other events in the life of the rulers and the nobility (perhaps these signs were read together).

By the year 700 AD main area of Monte Alban is dilapidated and was in decline. By 900 AD city actually turned into a small village, but it survives until the arrival of the Spaniards (by 1521) because served as a kind of necropolis for Mixtec rulers – they built their tombs there. Despite the decline of the center of Oaxaca – Monte Alban, the valley itself is the center of the surrounding area up to 1400’s.

900 AD – Mitla city became the capital of the rapidly evolving Mixtec state. At the same time, forms other religious centers – Lambitek, Zaachila, Uiyazoo.

Agriculture suffers a booming through the development of a new method – a method of creating terraces, which is extremely effective in mountainous areas, and allows to gather a large harvest, and use as a field previously unused hills. There is a growth level of fertility.

A distinctive feature of Mixtecs society was clearly hierarchical and structured system of selecting rulers, chiefs. Thus, man’s place in the hierarchy of power was clearly defined. Most important role in man’s belonging to the ruling elite has played his lineage – if his ancestors were noble, then this person belonged to the elite. Exactly because of this mixtecs often enter into marriage with their relatives (they could easily marry their sisters) and made their lineage “perfect.” We know, for example, 4 unions between brothers and sisters – descendants of the ruler 8 Deer “Tiger claw”.

By the XII century Mixtecs, using the weakness of Monte Alban and whole Zapotec society, sometime with the help of a marriage between the elite, and the other time, using military power, invaded the valley of Oaxaca, which later becomes part of their state. This happens during the reign of 8 Deer – in the same way he conquers other surrounding areas.

1496 AD – boundaries of the Aztec Empire are located near the border of Mixtec state. Grandson of Montezuma I – Ahuitzotl can not ignore the territory of Mixtec State – he begins military expansion of the Aztecs, which turns into a protracted one.

In 1503, the Aztecs begin anew protracted and bloody war against Oaxaca. Montezuma II attacks mixtec city Achiotlan and Xaltepec.

Then, from 1505 to 1509 Aztec emperor began a military campaign against the cities Quetzaltepec, Tototepec, Teuctepec, Miauatlan, Yanuetlan and Zozallan.

1511 – 1512 year – a campaign against Napollan, Ikatepec, Tlaxiaco. The Aztecs defeated in the war against Oaxaca.

In 1521, after the conquest of the Aztec capital, the conquistador Hernan Cortes directs his gaze to the valley of Oaxaca, and also submits it.

Stages of development of Monte Alban: